Studies have documented both immediate and long term effects of divorce on children. Two conclusions stand out from the data: First, the economic and emotional security of children is better maintained when both parents continue to play an active role in the child's life. Second, divorce is a continuum of experiences which effect many children into adulthood. Problems range from poor peer relationships, psychosomatic illness, lack of emotional commitment to personal relationships, and academic failure to suicide, drug dependence and criminal activity.
EVALUATING THE RESEARCH
Professionals who counsel families need to carefully evaluate the research in order to assess its relevance to those who seek their advice. Wallerstein has followed sixty families in California for more than a decade. She has been perhaps the most effective advocate drawing attention to the plight of these children, but the focus of her research has been divided between the adults and the children. While most of the adult literature has focused on the process of adult recovery, generally taking 2-3 years, Wallerstein has found that many of the children who initially seemed to be adapting successfully were having the most difficulty at the assessment ten year later. This finding needs to be more widely recognized by legal professionals and we believe attention to the issues identified in this web site could substantially change the outcome for many children.
Heatherington, Furstenberg, and Ahrons have studied larger populations than Wallerstein, but the follow-up duration has been shorter, and equally reliant on retrospective information. Unfortunately none of these studies has a cohort of families that one could claim were "representative" of the families seen in the course of reglar medical practice or an adequate control group. In a culture which has absorbed many significant changes in gender stereotype, family demographics, and media content/exposure, it is difficult to determine what is the effect of the divorce per se and what is the effect of all the other societal forces. The conclusions of these studies have been somewhat more optimistic than the findings of Wallerstein, with Ahrons emphasizing the resilience of children, but still showing increased emotional, inability to commit to relationships, and increased adolescent acting out.
If there is a consensus among the studies, it is the following: all have emphasized the importance of strong parent-child relationships as a critical determinant of children's mental and emotional health following divorce.
THE ROLE OF ADVOCACY
Since memebrs of their religious community or faith will usually accepted by both parents as advocates for children no one is in a better position to help keep both parents involved. To be in a position to provide anticipatory guidance about custody and a visitation schedule requires a shift in how many individuals approach the whole topic of divorce. Certainly there is research which suggests the need to re-evaluate many of the currently accepted precedents. No one should ignore the stigma of terminology, e.g. custody implies children can be treated like property and "visiting parent" is an oxymoron.
Conveying a more complete sense of the social history of divorce also enables parents to make more appropriate decisions. It is helpful to remind parents that until the beginning of the twentieth century, children generally stayed not with their mothers but with their fathers following a divorce. It is only over the last sixty years, influenced by a doctrine based on attachment theory called the "tender years", that children have typically ended up living with their mother (physical custody) while the father has been granted "visitation rights". This has been far from ideal for mothers, fathers or children. Even though they may have shared legal custody, this has often left fathers in a peripheral role, mothers assuming the burden of "single parenting", and children with inadequate access to the non-residential parent.
Research increasingly shows that there are positive qualities in child development that appear to be influenced specifically by the presence of fathering in a child's life. For example, the work of Parke, Lamb and others has identified the importance of the father relationship for both sons and daughters in the development of ethical decision making, empathy, and critical thinking.
Using this information those who serve as counselors can minimize hostility between parents and help them fashion an agreement that provides the time for both fathers and mothers to maintain a mutually satisfying relationship with their children.
REFERENCES with annotations EFFECTS OF DIVORCE
Ahrons C: The Good Divorce. New York, Harper Collins, 1995 p.19 (reference to high conflict families having same ill-effects as divorce, or worse)
Camara K, Resnick G: Interparental Conflict and Cooperation: Factors Moderating Children's Post-Divorce Adjustment, in Heatherington EM, Arasteth JD (eds.): Impact of Divorce, Single Parenting, and Stepparenting on Divorce Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1988
Cherlin AJ, Furstenberg FF: Longitudinal Studies of Effects of Divorce on Children in Great Britain and the United States. Science 1991;252(5011):1386 (Among many things cite that "great majority of kids of divorce are very young, often in the preschool years."Based on their involvement in the National Child Survey.)
Clapp G:Divorce & New Beginnings. New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1992. (Affirms need for both parents pp. 106,136; states that parental conflict increases problems for kids p. 108, divorce is not a single event, but a series of events p. 110, dismisses "for good of children" p. 128, discourages short visits p. 143.)
Furstenberg, FF, Cherlin A: Divided Families: What Happens to Children When Parents Part. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1991 (Outcome seems dependent on the degree of parental hostility and the parenting capabilities of custodial parent. 49 % of non-custodial fathers don't see kid after one year.)
Guidubaldi J, Perry JD: Divorce and Mental Health Sequelae for Children: Follow-up of a Nationwide Sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry 1985;24:531 (Followed 699 kids for six years. All children had more trouble in school with aggression and acting out. Most affected were boys in mother-custody homes)
Heatherington EM, Cox M, Cox R: The Aftermath of Divorce in Stevens JH, Matthews, R (eds): Mother/Child, Father/Child Relationships. Washington, D.C., NAEYC, 1977 (Showed increased impulsiveness, negative/disobedient behavior. Girls had improved much more than boys over two years)
Person E: Dreams of Love and Fateful Encounters. New York, Penguin, 1989 (Documented the lack of trust and failure to commit to relationships)
Pope H, Mueller, CW: The Intergenerational Transmission of marital Instability: A Comparison by Race and Sex. Journal of Social Issues 1986;32:49 (Documented the lack of trust and failure to commit to relationships as well as higher incidence of divorce in children of divorce)
Wallerstein JS, Blakeslee S: Second Chances. New York, Ticknor and Fields, 1989 (50% of women and 33% of men were angry 10 years later, more than 50% saw at least one episode of physical violence and had never seen any before the separation)
Wallerstein JS, Kelly JB: Suriviving the Breakup. New York, Basic Books, 1980 (Common problems for the 1/3 who had been doing well and were now functioning poorly were moderate to severe depression, acute unhappiness, poor learning, intense anger, sexual promiscuity, and delinquent behavior such as drug abuse, alcoholism and stealing. Only 25% of the kids felt they got any help from a family member and only 10% felt they got help outside of the family.)
Parental Hostility
Ahrons C: The Good Divorce. New York, Harper Collins, 1995
Camara K, Resnick G: Interparental Conflict and Cooperation: Factors Moderating Children's Post-Divorce Adjustment, in Heatherington EM, Arasteth JD (eds.): Impact of Divorce, Single Parenting, and Stepparenting on Divorce Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1988
Emery RE: Interpersonal Conflict and the Children of Discord and Divorce. Psychological Bulletin 1982;92:310
Hunt M, Hunt B: The Divorce Experience. New York, McGraw Hill, 1977. ( Proposed adult recovery model taking 2-3 years. Reported more than 1/3 of mothers still angry after five years.)
Johnston J, Kline M, Tschann JM: Ongoing Postdivorce Conflict: Effects on Children of Joint Custody and Frequent Access. Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1989;59:576 ("The more contact children have with two warring parents, the more emotionally troubled the youngsters were and the more behavior problems they had. These children were living in a constant state of anxiety and tension, constantly moving between two enemy camps.")
Overall effects
Heatherington EM, Furstenberg, FF: Sounding the Alarm. Readings, A Journal of Reviews and Commentary in Mental Health 1989; 6:4
Kalter N: Long-Term Effects of Divorce on Children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1987;57:587 (Found that most kids who were OK at first had more serious problems as teenagers, especially the girls who had little father contact and could not become involved in healthy heterosexual relationships.).
Stay Together for Kids
Block J, Block J, Gjerde PE: The personality of Children Prior to the Divorce. Child Development 1986;57:827 (Discusses the effect of personality and outside resources on the adaptability of the kid and effect of pre-divorce environment in determining this resiliency.)
Thornton A: Changing Attitudes Towards Family Issues in the United States. Journal of Marriage and the Family 1989;52:873. (Only 20 % of women said it was worth staying together for the kids' sake.)
Abuse
Gordon M: The Family Environment of Sexual Abuse: A Comparison of Natal and Stepfather Abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect 1991;13:121 (Abuse more likely with step-fathers. Also positive developmental effects on child of stepfather less dramatic than with real father)
Parker H, Parker S: Father-Daughter Sexual Abuse. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1986;56:531
May be better for kids:
Amato P, Keith B: Parental Divorce and the Well-Being of Children: A Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin 1991; 110(1): 26-46
Fisher HE: Anatomy of Love. New York, W.W. Norton, 1992 (Details studies showing that staying together is not necessarily in best interests of children)
Kelly JB: Current Research on Children's Post-Divorce Adjustment. Family and Conciliation Courts Review 1993: 31:45
Mead M: Anomalies in American Postdivorce Relationships, in Bohanon P (ed): Divorce and After: An Analysis of the Social and Emotional Problems of Divorce. New York, Anchor Books, 1971, p125
BOTH PARENTS AS KEY VARIABLE
Bronfenbrenner, U: Discovering What Families Do, in Blankenhorn, D (ed.):Rebuilding the Nest. Milwaukee, Family Service America, 1990
Kelly JB: Current Research on Children's Post-Divorce Adjustment. Family and Conciliation Courts Review 1993: 31:45.
King V:Nonresident Father Involvement and Child Well-Being: Can Dads Make a Difference? Journal of Family Issues 1994;15(1):78. (national survey shows that the quality of the relationship is relatively more important than the frequency of the visits)
Thomas AM, Forehand R: The Role of Paternal Variables in Divorced and Married Families: Predictability of Adolescent Adjustment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1993;63(1):126 (Relationship of children and their fathers is strong indicator of adolescent adjustment to divorce)
Warshak RA, The Custody Revolution. New York, Poseidon Press, 1992
DURATION/NUMBERS
Ahlburg DA, DeVita CJ: New Realities of the American Family. Population Bulletin, 1992; 47(2):15
Bumpass L, Sweet JA: Children's Experience in Single-Parent Families: Implications of Cohabitation and Marital Transitions. Family Planning Perspectives 1989;6:256 (less than 50% of children living with both parents by age of 17)
Clapp G: Divorce & New Beginnings. New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1992. (Recovery (average) for adults is 2-3 years).
Fisher HE: Anatomy of Love. New York, W.W. Norton, 1992 (Across the world the modal divorce is at four years with childbearing at two years)
Goode WJ: World Changes in Divorce Patterns. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1994. (80% initiated by women. Numbers quoted also show young children predominate.)
Hofferth S: Updating Children?ife Course. Journal of Marriage and the Family 1995;47:93. (70% of white children and 90% of black children born in 1980 will spend some time living in a single-parent home before their eighteenth birthday)
National Childrens Survey of The National Center for Health Statistics. Washington D.C., GPO, 1994. (Quoted in Furstenberg and others to show kids usually in elementary age group or younger. Also showed that most second marriages dissolved by five years--again involving very young kids)
Popenoe D: Life Without Father. New York, The Free press, 1996 (Early marriage as a sure ticket to divorce. More than 50% live apart from fathers)
U.S. Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports P23-180. GPO, Washington, D.C., 1996. (Total number of kids)
HISTORY
Phillips R, Untying the Knot: A Short History of Divorce. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991
Halem C: Divorce Reform. New York, The Free Press, 1991. (Examines the "tender years" doctrine and lack of support for mother to function successfully as single parents. Finds lack of father involvement with critique of how system makes it difficult)
Coontz S, The Way We Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap. New York, Basic Books, 1992
SINGLE PARENT
Ahrons C: Redefining the Divorced Family. Social Work, 1981; 25(6):437
McClanahan S: Growing Up With A Single Parent. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1994 (Economics accounts for less than 50% of effects of single parenting.)
PARENT RELATIONSHIPS
Friendly, non-cooperative
Maccoby E, Mnookin, R: Dividing the Child: Social and Legal Dilemmas of Custody. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1992 (1100 couples, most of which could cooperate over kids)
Furstenberg, FF, Cherlin A: Divided Families: What Happens to Children When Parents Part. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1991 (Most divorced couples simply aren't capable of the kind of continuous, courteous communication that is require if both of them are to play major roles in bringing up the children.)
Changing Interpretations
Hopper J: Oppositional Identities and Rhetoric in Divorce. Qualitative Sociology 1993; 55(11): 803
Spanier GB, Thompson L: Parting: The Aftermath of Divorce. Beverley Hills, Sage Publications, 1984 (Part of a U Calif study that showed for adults the re-involvement with life, creating a new lifestyle, was more crucial to adjustment after divorce than was successful coping with the divorce itself.)
FATHERS/PARENTING ROLES
Amato PR:Father-Child Relations, Mother-Child Relations, and Offspring Psychological Well-Being in Early Adulthood. Journal of marriage and the Family 1994;56:1031 (Both sons and daughter who feel close to their fathers were happier and more satisfied with their lives regardless of their feelings towards their mothers)
Angel, RA, Angel, JA: Painful Inheritance: Health and the New Generation of Fatherless Families. Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press, 1993 (terms fatherlessnss a mental health risk for children--causes poor school performance, impaired social development, limits chances for optimal social mobility)
Biller H, Solomon RS: Child Maltreatment and Paternal Deprivation: A manifesto for Research, treatment, and Prevention. Lexington, MA, Lexington Books, 1986 (Father involvement resulted in children who felt less out of control and less at mercy of the world. Accepted responsibility more readily and more likely to behave responsibly)
Biller H, Salter M: Father Loss, Cognitive and Personality Functioning, in Dietrich DR, Shabad P (eds.): The Problem of Loss: Psychoanalytic Perspectives. Madison, CT, International Universities Press, 1989 (Found that father deprived boys are less assertive, more dependent on peer relationships, less likely to be involved in competitive sports--all of which led to sense of alienation and loneliness. Found that girls raised exclusively by their divorced mothers are more likely to have their own marriages end in divorce and that they had more unsatisfying sexual relationships.)
Bing E: The Effect of Child-Rearing Practices on the Development of Differential Cognitive Abilities. Child Development 1982:34:631
Blanchard RW, Biller HB: Father Availability and Academic Performance Among Third-Grade Boys. Developmental Psychology 1981:301 (had increased standardized test scores and better grades)
Bowman M, Ahrons C: The Effect of the Post-divorce Relationship on Paternal Involvement. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1993;6(3):441
Braver SH, Wolchik SA, Sandler IN: Frequency of Visitation by Divorced Fathers: Differences in Reports by Mothers and Fathers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1991;61:448
Clarke-Stewart, KA: And Daddy Makes Three. Child Development 1978;49:466 (Up to three years found that a boys intellectual development enhanced by amount of play with father; for girls more dependent on verbal interaction and father's responses to her overtures for social interaction.)
Crandall VJ, Dewey R: Parents Attitudes and Behaviors and Grade-School Children's Academic Achievements. Journal of Genetic Psychology 1984;104:53 (level of academic performance of 2nd-4th grade girls directly correlated with father involvement)
Franz CE, McClelland DC, Weinberger J: Childhood Antecedents of Conventional Social Accomplishment in Midlife Adults: A Thirty-Six-Year Prospective Study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1991;60(4):586 (Warm affectionate fathers led to adults much more likely to be happily married, mentally healthy, and have stronger peer friendships)
Furstenberg FF, Morgan SP, Allison PD: Paternal Participation and Children's Well-Being After Marital Dissolution. American Sociological Review 1987;52:695 (Contact with fathers at end of first year. Only one child in six saw father once a week. 49 % hadn't seen father for a year. 20% had seen father only once a month. After ten years, only 10% had weekly contact, 63% had no contact in the last year.)
Goldstein HS:Father-Absence and Cognitive Development of Differential Cognitive Abilities. Psychological Reports 1982;51:843. (proficiency in math, esp for daughters.)
Grief G: Mothers Without Custody. Lexington, MA, Lexington Books, 1988.
(1.5 million mothers are living apart from their children under eighteen- roughly 2.5 million kids)
Griswold RL:Fatherhood in America. New York, Basic Books, 1993
Grossman TB: Mothers and Children facing Divorce. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1986 (Found "mothers do not understand that their children's angry outbursts stem from the stress of the divorce. They do not understand that their children need understanding. Instead they misinterpret their children's outbursts as a series of isolated incidents that deserve disciplinary action (although they frequently may not use it). At the same time the children do not recognize their mother's fatigue, but misinterpret it as disinterest or anger, which of course fuels the youngsters' feelings of hurt and isolation.")
Hoffman M: Father Absence and Conscience Development. Developmental Psychology 1971;4:400 (Looked at guilt following transgressions, acceptance of blame for wrongdoings, compliance with rules, and internalized moral standards--father absent kids had lowest scores on all measures; boys more aggressive than peers)
Heatherington EM, Parke R: Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint. New York, McGraw Hill, 1986 (Found that father absent girls did not feel attractive and could not sustain relationships with males and did not find satisfaction in love.)
King V: Nonresident Father Involvement and Child Well-Being: Can Dads Make a Difference? Journal of Family Issues 1994;15(1):78. (national survey shows that the quality if relationship is relatively more important than the frequency of the visits)
Koestner R, Franz C, Weinberger J: The Family Origins of Empathic Concern: A Twenty-Six-Year Study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1990;58(4):709 (Followed 75 men and women from five years of age. Strongest predictor of becoming an empathic adult was time spent with father)
Lamb ME: Fathers: Forgotten Contributors to Child Development. Human Development 1975;18:245
Mott FL: When Is A Father Really Gone: Paternal-Child Contact in father-Absent Homes. Demography 1990;4:499 (Data for the 49% number of fathers who don't see kid after a year)
National Commission on Children. Washington, D.C., GPO, 1991 (more than 20% of children in mother-custody homes had not seen his or her father in five years)
Parke R, Swain D: The Father's Role in Infancy. Family Coordinator 1976:25:365
Pedersen F, Rubinstein JL, Yarrow L: Infant Development in Father-Absent Families. Journal of Genetic Psychology 1979;135:51 (In children up to two found that father presence strongest correlate with precocious mental skills and curiosity)
Radin N, Russell G: The Influence of Fathers on Their Sons and Daughters. Social Work in Education 1986:8:77 (Increases quantitative and math abilities, boys verbal intelligence)
Santrock J: Father Absence, Perceived Maternal Behavior, and Moral Development in Boys. Child Development 1975;43:455 (Used teacher ratings of moral maturity--highest ratings were with kids who had most time with father)
Wallerstein JS, Kelly JB: Surviving the Breakup. New York, Basic Books, 1980 (Girls in mother-custody families expressed more fears of being hurt, abandoned and betrayed by men; had less successful heterosexual relationships. At ten years more than half the boys of mother-custody families were lonely and had experienced few if any lasting relationships with the opposite sex. Women worried by betrayal, men worry that they won't find true love.)
Wylie, P: A Generation of Vipers.. New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955
Zaslow MJ: Sex Differences in Children's Response to Parental Divorce. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1989;59:118 (Study done by NICH & HD and the NAS showed that "boys respond more negatively (than girls) to divorce both immediately and over a period of years, if they are living with an unmarried mother; whereas in father custody girls fare worse.)
FATHER VS MOTHER CUSTODY
The studies looked at the following: Sadness, distress, longing for the intact family, strong wishes for parental reconciliation, self-esteem, maturity, independence, anxiety, behavior problems, psychosomatic complaints, custodial parent-child relationships, teacher-child relationships, peer relationships. None of nine studies found any difference between groups
Camara K, Resnick G: Interparental Conflict and Cooperation: Factors Moderating Children's Post-Divorce Adjustment, in Heatherington EM, Arasteth JD (eds.): Impact of Divorce, Single Parenting, and Stepparenting on Divorce Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1988 (Heatherington also has text that says "although mothers gave their children a hard time, they received "tough treatment" from their children in return, particularly from their sons. Distraught preschoolers became demanding and whiny and clung to fatigued mothers whom they ignored or disobeyed. Mothers, in return, became increasingly more restrictive and negative while offering less nurturance and support. One mother described her relationship with her preschooler as "declared war".")
Petersen JL, Zill N: Marital Disruption, Parent-Child Relationships, and Behavior Problems in Children. Journal of Marriage and the Family 1986:48:295 (School survey
--children of divorce almost 50% more likely to have discipline problems over the four years surveyed. Further found that the children of parents who had divorced or separated were doing no worse than parents in high conflict homes. As a group, the kids in the high conflict homes were worst of all--more depressed, impulsive, hyperactive and misbehaved more often.)
Rosen R: Children of Divorce: What They Feel About Access and Other Aspects of the Divorce Experience. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 1987;6:24 (Children in both mother-custody and father-custody are more satisfied when they have more access to the noncustodial parent)
Schnayer R, Orr RR: A Comparison of Living in Single-Mother and Single Father Homes. Journal of Divorce 1989;3:171
Warshak RA, The Custody Revolution. New York, Poseidon Press, 1992
Another set of studies looked at children's adjustment as a function of custody. None found any difference between sole and joint custody (though actual amount of time with the other parent varies wildly), but that the parents relationship with the child, with each other, and child's regular access to each parent determined whether the child was likely to become anxious, depressed and aggressive. Unfortunately they didn't look for the positive correlations.
Leupnitz DA:Child Custody. Lexington, MA, D.C. Heath, 1982
Kline M, Tschann JM, Johnston JR, Wallerstein JS: Child's Adjustment in Joint and Sole Physical Custody Families. Developmental Psychology 1989;25:430
Pearson J, Thones N: Custody After Divorce: Demographic and Attitudinal Patterns. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1990;60:233
Wolchik SA, Braver SL, Sandler IW: Maternal Versus Joint Custody: Children's Post-Separation Experiences and Adjustment. Journal of Clinical Psychology 1985;14:5
LEGAL
Griswold RL: Fatherhood in America. New York, Basic Books, 1993 (tender years and history of parent assignment post-divorce)
Mnookin R: Negotiating in the Shadow of the Law: The Case of Divorce. Yale Law Review 1979;88:950.
CHILDREN'
S BEHAVIORS
Belsky J, Steinberg L, Draper P: Childhood Experience, Interpersonal Development, and Reproductive Strategy: An Evolutionary Theory of Socialization. Child Development 1991;62:647 (Daughters from divorced families reached menarche an average of six months before age-mates from maritally intact families.)
Demo, DD, Acock, AA: The Impact of Divorce on Children. Journal of Marriage and the Family 1988;50:619
Draper P, Hardpenning H:Father Absence and Reproductive Strategy. Journal of Anthropologic Research 1982;38(3):255 (Cross cultural study that showed that "father deprived girls showed precocious sexual interest, derogation of males, and poor ability to maintain sexual and emotional adjustment with one male.")
Gottfriedsen MR, Hirschi T:A General Theory of Crime. Stanford, CA, Stanford University Press, 1990 (People who engage in criminal acts lack self-control and empathy which are significantly determined by the father-child relationship.)
Gregory I: Anterospective Data Following Loss of a Parent: Delinquency and High School Dropout. Archives of General Psychiatry 1966;13:1965 (Study of 11,000 children that showed boys raised by fathers were less likely to become delinquent than boys raised by mothers. Children raised by the opposite sex parent more likely to drop out of school)
Heatherington EM: Effects of Father Absence on the Personality Development of Adolescent Girls. Developmental Psychology 1972;7(3):313 (Contrasting the behavior of adolescents from father present, widowed, and divorced families, the daughters of divorce showed the most seductive and promiscuous behavior, more likely to marry at an early age, to become pregnant before marriage and to divorce)
Heatherington EM: Coping With Family Transitions. Child Development 1989;60:1 (Boys in high conflict families, whether disrupted or intact, tended to show more aggressive/antisocial behavior. Saw especially coercive behavior cycles between non-remarried mothers and sons
McClanahan S, Sandfur G: Growing Up With A Single Parent Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1994 (Chances of dropping out of high school for children of divorce was 31% [non-disrupted families 13%, born out of wedlock was 33%]; teenage mother for children of divorce was 33% [non-disrupted families was 11%, out of wedlock 37%])
Reiss AJ, Roth JA: Understanding and Preventing Violence. Washington, D.C., National Academic Press, 1993. ("Numerous studies show that violent offenders have disharmonious parents who are likely to separate or divorce.")
Seagull AA, Seagull EAW: The Non-Custodial Father's Relationship to His Child: Conflicts and Solutions. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 1977;6:11. (Talks about problems with short visits and transitions.)
Walczak Y: Divorce: The Child's Point of View. London, Harper & Row, 1984. ("children were unhappy,, insecure, and apathetic at the time of their parents' divorce. They were no longer able to appreciate or look forward to things they once had enjoyed. They lost their appetites, had difficulty falling asleep, showed tears, withdrawal, and bad tempers to express their misery. A significant percentage had a hard time maintaining friendships and a social life. They seek attention, antagonize people, and drive friends away. Same group also said that parents who helped most were detached from child's relationship to other parent, neither trying to influence the child's feelings for the other parent or making it difficult to see the other parent; have appropriate expectations for their children, expecting them neither to behave as grown-ups nor to be substitutes for the former spouse or for adult friends; be reliable and predictable.)
Wells, LE, Rankin, JH:Families and Delinquency: A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Broken Homes. Social Problems 1991;38:71 (Kids from broken homes and single mother homes prevalency of delinquency is 10-15% higher)
Whiting B, Whiting J:Children of Six Cultures: A Psychocultural Analysis. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1975 (The highest rates of assault and murder occurred in cultures which were most father-distant and the raising of children left exclusively to females.)
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